Detainees in Iran and the U.S.

December 15, 2024

Hostage seizures and arrests have been a recurrent feature of the troubled relationship between the United States and Iran since revolutionary students captured the U.S. Embassy—and 52 diplomats—on Nov. 4, 1979. That 444-day drama ended on Jan. 20, 1981, the day President Ronald Reagan was inaugurated. But over the next four decades, Iran sporadically detained dozens of other Americans and Iranian-Americans. Several were tried and convicted on charges of espionage or undermining Iranian national security. Others were simply held indefinitely in Tehran’s notorious Evin Prison. Over the years, the United States also arrested dozens of Iranians or Iranian-Americans on charges ranging from sanctions-busting to fraud.

In January 2016, Iran and the United States organized a prisoner swap that was timed with final implementation of the nuclear deal—the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action—reached between Iran and the world’s six major powers in 2015. Iran released one American and four Iranian-Americans, including Washington Post correspondent Jason Rezaian. The United States pardoned or commuted the sentences of one Iranian and six Iranian-Americans. But not all detainees were released by either nation.

As tensions mounted between Washington and Tehran in 2019, Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif proposed a second swap of prisoners or detainees. “I put this offer on the table publicly now. Exchange them,” Zarif said at the Asia Society, in New York, in April. “All these people that are in prison inside the United States, on extradition requests from the United States, we believe their charges are phony. The United States believes the charges against these people in Iran are phony. Why? Let's not discuss that. Let's have an exchange. I'm ready to do it. And I have authority to do it. We informed the government of the United States six months ago that we are ready.”

In October 2019, Zarif said that Iran had sent the United States a list of Iranians in U.S. jails for a proposed prisoner swap. Tehran did not publish the list, but Zarif pointed to the case of Iranian stem-cell scientist Masoud Soleimani, who was arrested in 2018 for trying to export vials of growth hormone to Iran in violation of U.S. sanctions. The U.S. State Department refused to comment on possible communication with Iran on a prisoner exchange.

As of late 2019, at least six Americans were either imprisoned or missing in Iran. The United States held 29 Iranian citizens, according to the U.S. Bureau of Prisons in November 2019. Ten Iranians were sentenced for drug offenses, six for fraud/bribery/extortion, two for burglary/larceny, one for weapons/explosives, one for a sex offense, and one for robbery. The remaining eight were unsentenced inmates. 

On March 10, 2020, Secretary of State Mike Pompeo urged Iran to release “all wrongfully detained Americans being held in Iran.” He warned that the United States would hold Iran accountable if any of the American prisoners died from coronavirus, which had spread to at least three Iranian prisons by February 25. “Our response will be decisive,” Pompeo said. Pompeo added that Iran’s decision to grant furloughs to 70,000 prisoners showed “its ability to grant clemency and show mercy.” 

On June 2, 2020, the United States deported Iranian scientist Sirous Asgari back to Iran. Dr. Asgari was indicted in 2016 on charges of stealing trade secrets related to research he had done at Case Western Reserve University in 2012 and 2013. In November 2019, U.S. District Court Judge James Gwin ruled that the government’s evidence against Asgari was insufficient and dismissed the charges. But he remained in custody awaiting deportation. Issues with his passport and the limited availability of flights due to COVID-19 delayed his return to Iran.

On June 4, 2020, Iran released Michael White, an American who had been detained for nearly two years. The U.S. Navy veteran was arrested on unspecified charges in July 2018 while visiting his girlfriend in Iran. In March 2019, White was sentenced to two years in prison for insulting the supreme leader and 10 years for posting a private photograph on social media. In March 2020, White – an immunocompromised cancer patient – was released from prison on medical furlough and transferred to a hospital with COVID-19 symptoms. Both Iranian and U.S. officials denied any connection between White and Asgari. 

Zarif implied that White’s release was part of a swap involving another Iranian detained in the United States, Dr. Majid Taheri, also known as Matteo Taerri. In 2018, the Florida-based dermatologist was charged with violating U.S. sanctions on Iran. Prosecutors said that he tried to export a filter to Iran that could be used for chemical and biological warfare. But Taerri, who also holds U.S. citizenship, claimed it was for vaccine research. The government also accused him of organizing several bank transfers below the $10,000 threshold that would have required reporting under the Bank Secrecy Act. Taerri pleaded guilty but was freed on bond pending his sentence due to concerns about his health and vulnerability to COVID-19. 

On June 4, 2020, Taheri was released as White flew from Iran to Switzerland. His lawyer said he would visit family and seek medical treatment in Iran before turning to the United States. Taheri arrived in Iran on June 8. “If the possibility of exchanging prisoners exists, we have the readiness to free the rest of the individuals who are imprisoned and return them to the country,” Foreign Ministry spokesperson Abbas Mousavi told state-controlled media. 

U.S. Special Representative for Iran Brian Hook said that he hoped for further prisoner exchanges. “We’d love to have an in person meeting to have a consular dialogue so that we can move faster than we have,” he said on June 16. He added that President Trump "would like to get to the negotiating table" to discuss a range of issues.

In January 2021, President Joe Biden appointed Robert Malley as Special Envoy for Iran, who subsequently started negotiating with Tehran on prisoner swap. “We don't want to do a partial deal. We don't want to leave anyone behind,” he said in July 2021. “We’ve made some progress. We’re not there yet.” Malley added that the Iranians were being “extortionist.” He reiterated that the Americans had not committed any crimes. 

Iran also said that its nationals were innocent. “The release of Iranian citizens who are unjustly — and based on phony charges and bogus allegations — detained in the United States has always been a high priority for the Islamic Republic of Iran. But, unfortunately, the U.S. has taken this issue hostage to the Vienna talks,” Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Saeed Khatibzadeh told NBC News. The negotiations on a prisoner swap were held concurrently with negotiations in Vienna with the world’s major powers on returning the United States and Iran to full compliance with the 2015 nuclear deal. The nuclear talks, however, were suspended during Iran’s presidential campaign in June 2021. Ebrahim Raisi, a hardliner, won the election. He took office in August 2021. 

In September 2021, Iran's new foreign minister, Amir Hossein-Abdollahian, said that a prisoner swap was possible. “We see a prisoner swap and its potential as a purely humanitarian issue. And we think that without even bringing any table of discussion or negotiation with Yemen or any other topic, we can reach an agreement on the prisoner swap and act on it,” he told NBC News. 

In 2023, Iran released five Americans -- including  Siamak Namazi, Morad Tahbaz and Emad Shargi -- as part of a prisoner swap with the United States. The four men and one woman had been imprisoned on unproven charges of espionage. The United States released five Iranians. Four had allegedly violated U.S. sanctions, and another had acted as an unregistered foreign agent of the Islamic Republic. The following are profiles of foreigners and dual nationals held in Iran as well as Iranians detained by the United States. 


Americans Detained in Iran

 

Reza Validzadeh

Reza Valizadeh, a dual American-Iranian citizen, was reportedly detained in September 2024. The journalist had previously worked for Radio Farda, the Persian-language service of the U.S. government-funded Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. But he left the organization, known for being critical of the regime, in November 2022. A former colleague told the Committee to Protect Journalists that Valizadeh was being held without access to a lawyer in Evin prison, where political prisoners and dissidents have long been detained. 

As of November 2024, Iran had not acknowledged Valizadeh’s imprisonment. And the State Department said that it was investigating the reports. “We are working with our Swiss partners who serve as the protecting power for the United States in Iran to gather more information about this case,” the State Department said. “Iran routinely imprisons U.S. citizens and other countries’ citizens unjustly for political purposes. This practice is cruel and contrary to international law.”

Valizadeh was sentenced to 10 years in prison for "collaborating with the hostile U.S. government," his lawyer, Mohammad Hossein Aghasi, said in December 2024. “Valizadeh’s punishment for the crime of working at Radio Farda is ten years imprisonment, a ban on residence in Tehran province and neighbouring provinces, a ban on leaving the country and membership in political parties, etc. for two years." 

 

Karan Vafadari and Afarin Niasari

Husband and wife Karan Vafadari and Afarin Niasari were arrested by the Revolutionary Guards intelligence organization in July 2016 on charges of espionage and indecent behavior, although details about their case were only published in December 2016. Vafadari is a dual citizen of the United States and Iran. Niasari holds a U.S. green card. On July 21, 2018, Vafadari and Niasari were released on bail after having their initial sentences reduced earlier in 2018. They were awaiting a final verdict on their appeal request as of late July 2018.

The couple reportedly managed an art gallery in Tehran. Niasari was apprehended by IRGC intelligence at Imam Khomeini airport in Tehran before leaving to visit family abroad, according to Vafadari’s sister. Soon after, Niasari was ordered to call her husband and ask him to come to the airport, where he too was apprehended.

In a January 2018 letter obtained by the Center for Human Rights in Iran, Vafadari stated that he had been sentenced to 27 years in prison,124 lashes, confiscation of all assets, and a fine. He also cited charges related to espionage, alcohol consumption, receiving gifts of alcohol, and hosting parties. His wife Niasari had received 16 years. Vafadari attributed his treatment and sentence to being Zoroastrian and a dual national. Their sentences were subsequently reduced to 15 years and 10 years, respectively. 

 

On July 21, 2018, Vafadari and Niasari were released from prison on bail after having their initial sentences reduced earlier in 2018. They were awaiting a final verdict on their appeal request as of late July.

 

U.S. Residents Detained in Iran

 

Shahab Dalili

Shahab Dalili, an Iranian citizen and a permanent resident of the United States, was imprisoned in 2016 while he was in Tehran for his father’s funeral. Shahab was sentenced to 10 years in prison for “aiding and abetting” the United States, according to his wife Nahid. Dalili and his family had recently immigrated to the United States, settling in Gainesville, Virginia before he was arrested in Tehran.

Nahdi Dalili has repeatedly called on the Biden Administration to include her husband in a potential prisoner swap, “The Biden administration shouldn’t leave Shahab behind. He is a permanent legal resident, and all of his family are citizens.” Dalili was not included in a 2023 prisoner swap. Dalili and his son, Darian, went on a hunger strike to protest. 

 

Iranians Detained in the United States

Jeffrey Chance Nader 

On Aug. 13, 2024, Jeffrey Chance Nader, a U.S.-Iranian dual national, was arrested on charges of the illegal export of U.S.-manufactured aircraft components to Iran.  

Nader and other co-conspirators attempted to purchase and illegally export aircraft components to Iran for use on types of military aircraft such as F-4 fighter jets. Nader received purchase orders from customers in Iran and coordinated with U.S.-based suppliers. When communicating with the U.S. companies, he falsely claimed that his company, Pro Aero Capital, was the end user of the aircraft materials. Nader attempted to export the materials to the UAE before the items were detained by the Department of Commerce. 

 

Gholam Reza Goodarzi 

On Aug. 30, 2024, Gholam Reza Goodarzi, a U.S.-Iranian dual national, was arrested for illegally exporting aircraft components and evading sanctions. On Sept. 3, 2024, he was charged with smuggling parts for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and other manned aircraft into Iran. If convicted, Goodarzi could face up to a $250,000 fine and ten years in prison. 

Since Dec. 1, 2020, Goodarzi allegedly purchased U.S.-produced aircraft-related parts from U.S. suppliers then illegally exported them to Iran through the UAE. He also smuggled these parts in his luggage on multiple occasions while traveling to Iran.  

 

Saeid Haji Agha Mousaei 

On Jan. 24, 2023, Saeid Haji Agha Mousaei was arrested in the United Kingdom then later extradited to the United States to face charges for his involvement in a scheme to export U.S.-produced technology to Iran. If convicted, Mousaei could face up to 10 years in prison for smuggling goods, 20 years for wire fraud, and 20 years for violating the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEA). 

Mousaei was a manager at the UAE-based Millennium Product Company LLC where he played a role in the export of testing technology such as oscilloscopes and spectrum analyzers to Iran. Mousaei and fellow co-conspirators falsely claimed to U.S. distributors that the end-users of these products were based in the UAE or Armenia. 

 

Seyed Sajjad Shahidian

On Nov. 11, 2018, Seyed Sajjad Shahidian was arrested in London for conducting financial transactions that violated U.S. sanctions. In May 2019, he was extradited to the United States to stand trial. On June 26, 2019, he pleaded guilty to one count of conspiracy to commit offenses against and to defraud the United States. 

Shahidian was CEO of Payment24, an internet-based financial services company with several offices in Iran. Between 2009 and 2018, Payment24 allegedly conducted financial transactions with companies in the United States to illegally import computer software, software licenses and servers. Shahidian admitted to opening hundreds of PayPal accounts on behalf of Iranian clients using fake passport and fraudulent residency documents. "Mr. Shahidian feels very remorseful for his actions and is taking responsibility for [his] actions," said Manny Atwal, a public defender representing him. "He wants to put this behind him and move on with his life."

On June 16, 2020, he pled guilty to one count of conspiring to violate sanctions. In October 2020, Shahidian was sentenced to two years in federal prison. 

 

Majid Ghorbani and Ahmadreza Mohammadi-Doostdar

On Nov. 5, 2019, Majid Ghorbani, an Iranian citizen and U.S. permanent resident, pleaded guilty to one count of violating U.S. sanctions for his role in an Iranian espionage ring. He was sentenced to 30 months in prison on Dec. 17, 2020. Ahmadreza Mohammadi-Doostdar, a dual Iranian-U.S. citizen listed in the same indictment, pleaded guilty to one count of conspiracy and one count of acting as an undeclared agent of the Iranian government. He was sentenced to 38 months in prison on Jan. 15, 2020.  

Ghorbani was tasked by the Iranian government to collect information on Americans involved with the Mujahideen-e Khalq (MEK), according to U.S. prosecutors. The MEK, designated a terrorist organization by the United States until 2012, is an Iranian dissident group that seeks regime change. Doostdar reportedly traveled from Iran to provide Ghorbani with instructions from Iranian intelligence. “The Iranian government thought it could get away with conducting surveillance on individuals in the United States by sending one of its agents here to task a permanent resident with conducting and collecting that surveillance,” said U.S. Attorney Jessie Liu.
 

Behrooz Behroozian

On Oct. 25, 2019, the United States sentenced Behrooz Behroozian, a naturalized U.S. citizen born in Iran, to 20 months in federal prison for illegally exporting gas and oil pipeline parts to Iran in violation of export control laws. The U.S. Attorney’s Office said Behroozian used an Ohio computer parts company, Comtech International, as a front to conceal the illicit sale of pipeline components, which had commercial and military value. The Justice Department said Behroozian profited $35,000 to $40,000 per year from the illegal sales.

U.S. prosecutors said the case demonstrated Iran’s “desire for specialized American technology” and Behroozian’s willingness to violate export control laws for personal gain. “Behroozian profited financially by strengthening the economy of one of the world’s most infamous state sponsors of terrorism,” said U.S. Attorney Benjamin Glassman. “The parts obtained by Behroozian benefited the Iranian gas and petrochemical industry. Not only did Behroozian’s crimes diminish the effectiveness of American trade sanctions but they also undermined America’s national security.”

 

Mehdi “Eddie” Hashemi

On Aug. 20, 2019, U.S. authorities arrested Mehdi “Eddie” Hashemi, a U.S.-Iran dual citizen, on 21 charges of illegally exporting prohibited manufacturing equipment to Iran. In November 2019, Hashemi pleaded guilty to one count of conspiring to violate the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), and in July 6, 2020, he was sentenced to one year in federal prison followed by three years probation. 

Prosecutors accused Hashemi of participating in a scheme to ship computer numerical control machines, which are used to process raw metals and other materials, to Iran on behalf of a Tehran-based company. The Justice Department said Hashemi shipped the equipment to the United Arab Emirates “under false and forged invoices and packaging lists” before the materials were forwarded to Iran.

 

Mahin Mojtahedzadeh

On July 19, 2019, Mahin Mojtahedzadeh pleaded guilty to conspiring to unlawfully export gas turbine parts from the United States to Iran. On Jan. 30, 2020, she was sentenced to time served while in custody since November 14, 2018, which amounted to 443 days. The United States district judge Mae A. D’Agostino ordered Mojtahedzadeh to pay a $5,000 fine, and she was transferred to immigration custody for her pending removal from the United States. 

Mahin was President and Managing Director of ETCO-FZC, an export company that worked with companies in Canada and Germany to evade U.S. sanctions and illegally deliver $3 million dollars’ worth of turbine parts to Iran. “By supplying Iran with millions of dollars’ worth of illegally exported turbine machinery, the defendant provided equipment that is critically important for Iran’s infrastructure,” said Assistant Attorney General John Demers. “This sort of sanctions violation allows the Iranian government to withstand the pressure of U.S. sanctions – pressure that is intended to end Iran’s malign behavior. We will continue to hold to account those who aid Iran in evading the United States’ comprehensive embargo.”

 

Behzad Pourghannad

On July 16, 2019, the U.S. Justice Department announced the indictment of Behzad Pourghannad, Ali Reza Shokri and Farzin Faridmanesh for illegally exporting “many tons” of carbon fiber to Iran.  The United States successfully extradited Pourghannad from Germany, but the other two defendants, Ali Reza Shokri and Farzin Faridmanesh, remained at large, according to federal authorities. On Aug. 29, 2019, Pourghannad pleaded guilty to conspiracy to circumvent U.S. export controls on carbon fiber. On Nov. 14, 2019, the Justice Department announced that Pourghannad was sentenced to nearly four years in prison. 

Prosecutors said the businessmen, operating out of Iran between 2008 and 2013, obtained large quantities of carbon fiber, a controlled substance with military and nuclear uses, from an unidentified U.S. dealer and exported it to Iran through third countries. Export documents falsely described the material as acrylic or polyester. “Carbon fiber has many aerospace and defense applications, and is strictly controlled to ensure that it doesn't fall into the wrong hands. Pourghannad and his co-defendants allegedly went to great lengths to circumvent these controls and U.S. export laws. Together with our law enforcement partners, we will continue to protect our nation's assets and protect our national security.”

 

Ali Sadr Hashemi Nejad

On March 20, 2019, the United States arrested Ali Sadr Hashemi Nejad, an Iranian national, on charges of evading U.S. sanctions. On March 29, Nejad pleaded not guilty to all charges. U.S. Magistrate Judge Barbara Moses denied Sadr’s request to be released on bail, claiming his wealth and global connections made him a flight risk. On June 5, 2020, New York district prosecutors moved to drop his case, citing disclosure-related issues. "The Government has determined that it would not be in the interests of justice to further prosecute this case," said the prosecutors. Further investigation revealed extensive misconduct within the federal prosecutors’ conduct throughout the case, and Sadr’s lawyers ensured that the prosecutorial misconduct would not lead to “immigration-related consequences” for Sadr.

Sadr allegedly used a network of front companies and foreign bank accounts to mask Iranian business dealings in Venezuela. “For years, Sadr allegedly funneled more than $115 million of a nearly half-billion-dollar Venezuelan construction contract through the U.S. banking system, using entities in Switzerland, Turkey, and the British Virgin Islands to conceal Iran’s identity.  The arrest of Sadr shows that U.S. economic sanctions against Iran are for real, and violators will be exposed and prosecuted,” said Manhattan U.S. Attorney Geoffrey S. Berman.

Sadr, the chairman of Maltese-registered Pilatus Bank, was charged in a six-count indictment and taken into custody in Dulles, Virginia. U.S. officials said Sadr’s family controlled the Stratus Group, an Iranian conglomerate company that was contracted to construct thousands of housing units in Venezuela. Pilatus Bank's assets were frozen by the Malta Financial Service Authority after Sadr’s arrest.

 

Sadr Emad-Vaez, Pouran Aazad and Hassan Ali Moshir-Fatemi 

On April 27, 2018, Sadr Emad-Vaez, Pouran Aazad and Hassan Ali Moshir-Fatemi were arrested for violating U.S. sanctions by exporting automotive parts to Iran. The three men each faced a maximum sentence of 30 years in prison and $1,250,000 in total fines. Hassan Ali Moshir-Fatemi and Sadr Emad-Vaez were ordered to begin serving their sentences on May 27, 2021. Pouran Aazad was sentenced to one year of probation and travel restrictions beginning in January 2021. 

The three businessmen, all Iranian-born and naturalized U.S. citizens, were executives of Ghare Sabz Company, a Tehran-based manufacturing company. U.S. prosecutors accused the men of using “an elaborate system of international wire transfers” to fund their operation to acquire auto parts from international manufacturers and ship them to Iran.

 

Alireza Jalali

On Nov. 29, 2017, Alireza Jalali, arrested in the same case as co-defendant Negar Ghodskani, pleaded guilty to conspiracy to facilitate the illegal export of technology to Iran. On March 20, 2018, Jalali was sentenced to 15 months in prison for his participation in the illicit procurement network. News of his release had not been published as of November 2019.

 

Kambiz Eghbali 

On Oct. 7, 2024 Kambiz Eghbali was arrested on charges of violating the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), conspiracy to commit money laundering, and conspiracy to commit bank fraud. If convicted, Eghbali could face 20 years in prison for violating the IEEPA, 30 years for bank fraud, and 20 years for money laundering. 

Kambiz Eghbali conspired to send digital and physical gift cards through his U.S.-based company to Iranian co-conspirators, Hamid Hajipour and Babak Bahizad. Hajipour and Bahizad would then pay Eghbali back for the cards by transferring money through third-party countries to bypass U.S. regulators. Hajipour and Bahizad remained at large as of October 2024. 

 

 

U.S. Detainees Released by Iran

Siamak Namazi

Dubai-based businessman Siamak Namazi was arrested in October 2015. On July 11, 2016, Tehran’s prosecutor announced that Namazi had been indicted but did not specify the charges. On October 18, 2016, after being tried without access to a lawyer, Namazi was sentenced to 10 years in prison for collaborating with a foreign government.

On Oct. 17, 2016, the Mizan news agency, the judiciary news service, posted a video that appeared to show Namazi in the hours immediately following his arrest. The short clip was an anti-American montage that showed images of a captured American surveillance drone, Jason Rezaian (a dual-national journalist who was accused of spying for the United States), U.S. sailors kneeling before being detained by Iranian forces and more.

Five other defendants were also convicted and given similar sentences, including Siamak Namazi’s father Baquer. On Aug. 26, 2018 the Tehran Appeals Court denied the appeals of Siamak and Baquer Namazi, upholding their convictions of collaborating with the U.S. government. The family's U.S.-based lawyer Jared Genser condemned the move as a “cruel and unjust decision” of the court. Namazi was being held in Evin Prison as of 2021.

On Oct. 1, 2022, U.N. Secretary General Antonio Guterres announced that Namazi had been “released from detention.” His lawyer clarified that he had been released on a one-week furlough. The United States welcomed the move and thanked Guterres, Switzerland, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Oman, and Britain for working to help the Namazi family. “Our efforts are far from over,” State Department Spokesperson Ned Price said. “We remain committed and determined to securing the freedom of all Americans unjustly detained in Iran and elsewhere.” Namazi's furlough was extended on October 8, but he was forced to return to prison four days later.

On Jan. 16, 2023, Namazi went on a hunger strike. In an open letter, he urged President Biden to do more to free him and the other Americans held in Iran. “In the past I implored you to reach for your moral compass and find the resolve to bring the US hostages in Iran home. To no avail,” he wrote. “Not only do we remain Iran’s prisoners, but you have not so much as granted our families a meeting.”

On Aug. 10, 2023, Namazi was released from Evin Prison into house arrest at a hotel in Tehran as part of a deal between the United States and Iran. The agreement reportedly secured the eventual release of Namazi as well as four other Iranian-American detainees. In return, Washington would unfreeze some $6 billion in Iranian assets held in South Korea and release several Iranians imprisoned for skirting U.S. sanctions. On September 18, Iran released him and four other Americans as part of a prisoner swap with the United States.

Morad Tahbaz

Morad Tahbaz
Morad Tahbaz

On Jan. 24, 2018, the Revolutionary Guards intelligence organization detained Morad Tahbaz, a dual American-Iranian citizen, and eight other environmental activists accused of espionage. Their trial began on in January 2019 but was delayed until the beginning of August. On Nov. 20, 2019, an Iranian court sentenced Tahbaz to 10 years in prison. 

The activists were members of the Persian Wildlife Heritage Foundation conducting research on Iran’s endangered cheetah population. On Oct. 24, 2018, the judiciary charged Tahbaz with “seeking proximity to military sites with the cover of environmental projects and obtaining military information from them.” One of the four charges against him included “sowing corruption on earth,” which typically carries the death penalty. But on Oct. 14, 2019, Judiciary Spokesman Gholam-Hossein Esmail said the capital charge had been dropped. The activists still faced charges of “assembly and collusion against national security” and “contacts with U.S. enemy government … for the purpose of spying,” according to the judiciary.

Tahbaz reportedly has cancer and his health has continued to deteriorate because he has not received medication and treatment for more than a year.

In March 2022, Tahbaz was released on furlough when two other British-Iranians, Nazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe and Anoosheh Ashoori, were released and allowed to leave Iran. Tahbaz, however, was returned to prison later in the month. On July 26, 2022, Iran released Tahbaz on bail with an electronic bracelet, according to his lawyer. Tahbaz was allowed to stay in Tehran with his in-laws and wife, Vida Tahbaz. Vida was barred from leaving Iran. “It's amazing news, but they're still not home,” their daughter Tara told Al-Monitor. “There's still a long way to go to get to that happy ending." In a tweet, the U.S. special envoy for Iran, Robert Malley, thanked Oman for “its help in achieving the furlough” of Tahbaz. “It is high time that he and the three other unjustly detained US citizens return home,” he added. 

On Aug. 10, 2023, Tahbaz was released from Evin Prison into house arrest at a hotel in Tehran as part of a deal between the United States and Iran. The agreement reportedly secured the eventual release of Tahbaz as well as four other Iranian-American detainees. In return, Washington would unfreeze some $6 billion in Iranian assets held in South Korea and release several Iranians imprisoned for skirting U.S. sanctions. 

Emad Shargi

Emad Shargi
Emad Shargi (photo courtesy of Shargi family)

Emad Shargi, a 56-year old U.S. citizen, was first arrested in April 2018 and held in section 2A of Evin prison for 8 months. For his first 44 days in prison, he was held incommunicado, with no contact or access to the outside world, including family and legal counsel. While detained, he was repeatedly interrogated and also held in solitary confinement, according to Shargi’s family. He was questioned about his business dealings and travels.

Shargi was released on bail in December 2018. Approximately one year later, in December 2019, he was issued an official document from the Revolutionary Court declaring his innocence and clearing him of all spying and national security charges. But his passport was withheld, and he was not permitted to leave Iran.  

On Nov. 30, 2020, Shargi was summoned to court and convicted of espionage without a trial. He was sentenced to 10 years in prison, a family friend told NBC News. His lawyer filed an appeal. On Jan. 14, 2021, the Young Journalists Club, a news agency affiliated with the Revolutionary Guards, reported that Shargi had been arrested near the western border. As of April 2021, he was being held in section 2A of Evin prison and has not been allowed visitors or access to legal counsel since his arrest, according to his family. 

“Nobody has been able to see him in nearly five months,” Shargi’s two daughters, Ariana and Hannah, wrote in The Washington Post in April 2021. “He is trapped in terrible conditions during a deadly pandemic and is being refused a vaccine. We have no way of knowing how he is, except for a couple of short, monitored phone calls.” 

Shargi and his wife, Amidi Shargi, were born in Iran but left as children. Emad Shargi completed his higher education in the United States. He received an undergraduate degree from the University of Maryland and a master’s degree from George Washington University. He previously worked in the plastics industry supplying plastics for water bottles and later at a company in Abu Dhabi leasing and selling private airplanes. He and his wife went to Iran in 2017, after their youngest child left home for college. At the time of his arrest in April 2018, he had just started working for the Dutch division of Sarava Holding, a tech investment company. 

On Aug. 10, 2023, Shargi was released from Evin Prison into house arrest at a hotel in Tehran as part of a deal between the United States and Iran. The agreement reportedly secured the eventual release of Shargi as well as four other Iranian-American detainees. In return, Washington would unfreeze some $6 billion in Iranian assets held in South Korea and release several Iranians imprisoned for skirting U.S. sanctions. 

 

Unnamed U.S.-Iranian Scientist

On Aug. 10, 2023, an unnamed female scientist was reportedly part of a deal between the United States and Iran to free five Americans detained in the Islamic Republic. As a first step, Tehran released four Iranian-Americans from Evin Prison into house arrest at a hotel in Tehran. The agreement reportedly secured the eventual release of the scientist as well as the four other detainees. In return, Washington would unfreeze some $6 billion in Iranian assets held in South Korea and release several Iranians imprisoned for skirting U.S. sanctions. On September 18, Iran released her and four other Americans as part of a prisoner swap with the United States.

 

Unnamed U.S.-Iranian Businessman

In late 2022, a male U.S.-Iranian citizen was reportedly detained in Iran. The Biden Administration sought his release along with three other detained Americans, Semafor reported in July 2023. On Aug. 10, 2023, the businessman was released from Evin Prison into house arrest at a hotel in Tehran as part of a deal between the United States and Iran. The agreement reportedly secured his eventual release as well as four other Iranian-American detainees. In return, Washington would unfreeze some $6 billion in Iranian assets held in South Korea and release several Iranians imprisoned for skirting U.S. sanctions. On September 18, Iran released him and four other Americans as part of a prisoner swap with the United States.

Baquer Namazi

Baquer Namazi was reportedly arrested on Feb. 22, 2016, four months after his son Siamak was detained. The elder Namazi, age 80 at the time of his arrest, is a former provincial governor and UNICEF representative who worked in several countries, including Kenya, Somalia and Egypt. His work largely focused on aid for women and children affected by war. Baquer Namazi most recently ran Hamyaran, an umbrella organization of a number of different Iranian NGOs. On Oct. 18, 2016, he was sentenced to 10 years for allegedly cooperating with U.S. intelligence agencies to spy on Iran.

On Jan. 15, 2018, Baquer was rushed to the hospital after a severe drop in blood pressure and irregular heartbreak. He was granted a four-day medical leave beginning on January 28. He was told to report to the government’s medical examiner on February 4, and that his leave would be extended until then. The examiner recommended a three-month leave on medical grounds. But on Feb. 6, 2018, Namazi received a call ordering him to return to Evin Prison.

On Aug. 28, 2018, the Center for Human Rights in Iran reported that Namazi had been released on medical furlough “for a considerable length of time” due to complications from his heart condition. He had to report back to Evin Prison weekly and was unable to leave the country to undergo heart surgery, according to his family. 

 

On Oct. 4, 2021, Namazi’s family said that he required urgent surgery to remove a 95 percent to 97 percent blockage in his right internal carotid artery, which supplies blood to the brain. Neurologists in Iran and the United States warned that his risk of death, stroke or heart attack could be 10 percent to 15 percent higher if is forced to undergo surgery in Iran. Namazi would risk contracting COVID-19 in an Iranian hospital. “I am begging for Iran to show mercy and for the international community, President Joe Biden, and U.N. Secretary General Antonio Guterres to do everything that they can to pressure Iran to lift the travel ban.,” said son Babak Namazi. “My dad deserves to spend whatever little time he has left with his children and grandchildren.”

Feb. 22, 2022 marked the sixth anniversary of Namazi's detention. “We call on the Iranian government to allow Baquer Namazi to return home, and release his son Siamak, as well as their fellow U.S. citizens Emad Shargi and Morad Tahbaz, who is also a U.K. citizen,” State Department Spokesperson Ned Price said. “Iran’s wrongful detention of U.S. citizens for use as political leverage is outrageous.” 

On Oct. 1, 2022, U.N. Secretary General Antonio Guterres announced that Namazi’s travel ban had been lifted so that he could seek medical treatment abroad. The United States welcomed the move and thanked Guterres, Switzerland, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Oman, and the Britain for working to help the Namazi family. “Our efforts are far from over,” State Department Spokesperson Ned Price said. “We remain committed and determined to securing the freedom of all Americans unjustly detained in Iran and elsewhere.” On October 5, Namazi flew to Oman and then to the United Arab Emirates for treatment. 

 

Michael White

U.S. Navy veteran Michael White, 46, from Imperial Beach, California, was arrested on unspecified charges in late July 2018 while visiting his girlfriend in Iran. In March 2019, White was sentenced to two years in prison for insulting the supreme leader and 10 years posting a private photograph publicly.

White arrived in Iran on July 9, 2018 and never made it onto his return flight on July 27, 2018, according to his mother, Joanne White. She last spoke with him on July 13, 2018; she filed a missing-person report when Michael did not return on his scheduled flight. In December 2018, the State Department informed her that White was being held in an Iranian prison and that U.S. officials were seeking access to him through the Swiss embassy in Tehran, which has provided consular services for Americans since 1980.

On March 11, 2019, an Iranian prosecutor said White had been sentenced, but he did not elaborate on the charges. An attorney for the family, Mark Zaid, later said that he was sentenced to two years in prison for allegedly insulting the supreme leader and 10 years for posting a private photograph on social media. Zaid said that he believed the sentences would run concurrently.

In August 2019, Swiss diplomats were granted permission to visit White in prison. The Swiss were told that prison doctors removed melanoma from his back earlier that month. White "continues to have medical issues” related to his cancer and previous chemotherapy treatments, according to a report from the Swiss embassy. He is currently awaiting a ruling on his appeal. 

In January 2020, White's mother released audio from a phone conversation she had with him in prison. He alleged that he had been subject to torture and inhuman conditions. "They've done everything to press me," White said. "They put me in isolation. They subjected me to torture conditions—deprivation of food and water numerous times."

 

 

On March 19, the State Department announced that White was temporarily released from prison on a medical furlough. His release was facilitated by the Swiss, who represent U.S. interests in Iran. White was required to remain in Iran throughout his furlough. “He’s in very good spirits. But he has some preexisting health conditions that are going to require some attention,” said U.S. Special Representative for Iran Brian Hook.  

 

 

On March 25, White was admitted to a medical ward for coronavirus patients after experiencing fever, fatigue, a cough and shortness of breath. White’s family said that he "is an immunocompromised cancer patient and his situation is urgent." They called for an immediate humanitarian medical evacuation to the United States to receive medical treatment. In early May, Switzerland asked Iran to extend White’s medical furlough.

On May 6, Secretary of State Mike Pompeo thanked Switzerland for its efforts. “Our gratitude also goes out to Switzerland, the United States protecting power in Iran for now four decades, for its efforts to extend Michael White’s medical furlough and seeking humanitarian furloughs for Siamak Namazi and Morad Tahbaz and bringing home all U.S. citizens wrongfully detained,” Pompeo told reporters at a news conference.

Xiyue Wang

Princeton University graduate student Xiyue Wang was arrested on Aug. 8, 2016 while conducting research in Iran on the administrative and cultural history of the late Qajar dynasty for his doctoral dissertation. On July 17, 2017, Wang was sentenced to 10 years in prison after being convicted of spying, according to Iran’s judiciary spokesman, Gholamhossein Mohseni Ejehi, and Iranian media.

A U.S. citizen “was gathering intelligence and was directly guided by the U.S.,” Ejehi announced at a weekly press briefing on July 16. He noted the sentence could be appealed, but did not elaborate or reveal the individual’s name.

On Dec. 7, 2019,  Wang was released in Switzerland in exchange for Massoud Soleimani, an Iranian national held in an Atlanta prison for allegedly violating U.S. sanctions. President Donald Trump, Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, and Iranian Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif thanked the Swiss for their help in arranging the trade. 

 

Nizar Zakka

On Sept. 18, 2015, Nizar Zakka, a Lebanese national and permanent U.S. resident, was detained on his way to the airport after attending a business conference by invite of the Iranian government. He was charged with having deep ties to the U.S. intelligence and military apparatuses by the Revolutionary Guards. On Sept. 20, 2016, Zakka’s lawyer announced that he had been sentenced to 10 years in prison and fined $4.2 million for collaborating against the state. On June 11, 2019, Iran released Zakka following intense negotiations between Lebanese and Iranian officials. Hezbollah, the Lebanese Shiite political movement and militia backed by Iran, facilitated as well.

 

The following individuals were released as part of a January 2016 prisoner swap that coincided with the implementation of the Iran nuclear deal. The 14 months of secret diplomacy began on the sidelines of nuclear talks between the United States and Iran. A fifth American, Matthew Trevithick, was also released by Iran, but U.S. officials said he was not part of the prisoner exchange.

Jason Rezaian

Washington Post journalist Jason Rezaian was detained on July 22, 2014, and charged with espionage, “collaborating with hostile governments,” and “propaganda against the establishment.” In a press conference on Oct. 11, 2015, Judiciary spokesman Gholam Hossein Mohseni Ejei confirmed that Rezaian had been found guilty but did not provide details on his sentence or the specific charges on which he was convicted. 

 

Amir Hekmati

Amir Hekmati was arrested in August 2011 while visiting his grandmother in Iran. He was charged with espionage, waging war against God, and corrupting the earth. In January 2012, he was convicted and sentenced to death. He was the first American to receive the death sentence in Iran since the revolution. But in March 2012, a retrial overturned the espionage conviction and instead charged him with “cooperating with hostile governments.” He was sentenced to 10 years in prison. 

 

Saeed Abedini

Rev. Saeed Abedini was detained on July 28, 2012, and initially imprisoned in September 2012. He had been in Iran to visit family and construct orphanages in partnership with Iranian Christians. His closed trial was held on January 22, 2013. He was convicted and sentenced to eight years in prison, reportedly for “undermining national security.”

 

Nosratollah Khosravi-Roodsari

Nosratollah Khosravi-Roodsari, a former California-based carpet seller and F.B.I. consultant, was arrested in May 2015 by Iranian intelligence agents when he tried to leave the country. His lawyer said his arrest had been “the result of a misunderstanding.” He reportedly opted to stay in Iran immediately following his release.

 

Matthew Trevithick

On Dec. 7, 2015, Matthew Trevithick, an American student studying Farsi At Tehran University, was arrested and accused of trying to overthrow the Iranian government. He denied the charges and was placed in solitary confinement for 29 days. He was finally released on January 16, 2016, after 40 days in Evin Prison.

 

Died in Iranian Custody

Robert Levinson

Former FBI agent Robert Levinson went missing on March 9, 2007, during a visit to Kish Island. The location and fate of Robert Levinson remains unknown.

Initial reports indicated that he was researching a cigarette smuggling case as a private investigator. “He's a private citizen involved in private business in Iran,” the State Department said in 2007. Iran has denied knowing the status or location of Levinson, who turned 70 in 2018.

In 2013, the Associated Press reported that Levinson had been working on a private contract for U.S. intelligence. In late 2013, the family acknowledged that his visit to Kish Island was partly related to his contract work for the CIA. Levinson served in the FBI and Drug Enforcement Administration for 28 years, where he focused on investigating organized crime in Russia. He retired from the FBI in 1998 and began working as a private investigator.

On March 25, 2020, the wife and children of Levinson announced “with aching hearts” that U.S. officials informed them that he had died in Iranian custody. Levinson had been on a rogue CIA mission when he disappeared on Kish Island. He was the longest held hostage in U.S. history. 

On March 9, 2021, the Biden administration marked the 14th anniversary of Levinson's abduction. Secretary of State Antony Blinken said that Levinson had likely died but that the case was not closed. 

Jamshid Sharmahd

German-Iranian citizen and U.S. resident Jamshid Sharmahd was reportedly abducted by Iranian intelligence during a trip to Dubai on July 29, 2020. Sharmahd, who was then residing in California, intended to travel through Dubai to India for business. On August 1, the Intelligence Ministry announced that it had detained Sharmahd and published a photo of him blindfolded.

Intelligence Minister Mahmoud Alavi accused Sharmahd of running the California-based opposition group Tondar (Thunder). Iran alleged that Tondar was responsible for a 2008 attack on a mosque in Shiraz that left 14 people dead and more than 200 wounded. Sharmahd’s family said that Sharmahd ran the group’s social media but was not connected to the bombing. In 2009, Iran hanged three men allegedly affiliated with Tondar.

In August 2020, state television aired footage of Sharmahd confessing. It then aired a report that claimed Sharmahd was planning additional attacks on Iranian soil.

Authorities did not disclose Sharmahd’s exact location. “Up until now, which is almost 10 months, our lawyer has not been able to see him or even get access to his case, not even once,” Sharmahd’s daughter, Gazelle, told the Center for Human Rights in Iran in June 2021. The family was told to pay $250,000 to a state-approved lawyer. Sharmahd’s family was concerned about his health because he had Parkinson’s disease and diabetes.

On Feb. 21, 2023, the judiciary announced that Sharmahd had been sentenced to death for allegedly plotting terrorist attacks and working with U.S. intelligence. German Foreign Minister Annalena Baerbock pledged to a “clear reaction” to the “absolutely unacceptable” ruling. She said that Sharmahd had been arrested under highly questionable circumstances and then denied a fair trial. 

On Oct. 28, 2024, Iran executed 69-year-old Jamshid Sharmahd on capital charges of “sowing corruption on earth,” a vague charge often levied against critics of the government. The judiciary also accused Sharmahd of collaborating with Western intelligence agencies. The United States, European countries and international human rights groups condemned the killing. Foreign Minister Baerbock said the execution of Sharmahd showed “once again what kind of inhumane regime rules in Tehran: a regime that uses death against its youth, its own population and foreign nationals.” Berlin also warned that there will be “serious consequences.” The State Department expressed solidarity with “Germany, the Sharmahd family, and the international community to hold the regime accountable.”

 

 

Iranian Detainees Released by the United States 

Amin Hasanzadeh 

On Nov. 7, 2019, Amin Hasanzadeh, an Iranian national and U.S. permanent resident, was arrested on charges of fraud and interstate transportation of stolen property. Federal prosecutors accused Hasanzadeh of stealing sensitive technical data from his employer and sending it to his brother, who was connected to the Iranian military. 

The Justice Department said that before coming to the United States in 2010 Hasanzadeh served in the Iranian military and worked at a company linked to "the Iranian government's Cruise Division of Air & Space Organization." In 2015, Hasanzadeh began working at a Detroit-based contracting company connected to the defense, aerospace and auto industries. Between January 2015 and June 2016, he allegedly sent his brother in Iran confidential documents on sensitive projects such as a "real-time supercomputer with applications that would include aerospace applications." His brother worked for multiple companies linked to Iran’s military programs, including cruise missile research and nuclear proliferation activities. 

On Sept. 18, 2023, Hasanzadeh was released by the United States as part of a prisoner swap with Iran. Hasanzadeh was granted clemency by President Joe Biden but with conditions that would still allow legal actions against him.  

Sirous Asgari 

Asgari, an Iranian scientist specializing in metals and batteries, has long-standing ties to the United States. In 1997, he received his Ph.D. in engineering from Drexel University in Pennsylvania. His children continued to live in the United States after he returned to Iran. In 2011, Asgari traveled from Iran to Ohio to meet with faculty from Case Western Reserve University. He returned to Iran. In 2012, he came back to the United States to work on a project at the university sponsored by the U.S. Navy Office of Naval Research. The project's goal was to produce anti-corrosive stainless steel. Asgari signed a non-disclosure agreement on the project before returning to Iran in April 2013.  

In April 2016, Asgari was charged under sealed indictment by federal prosecutors with stealing research from Case Western Reserve University in violation of U.S. sanctions on Iran; he was also charged with committing visa and wire fraud. 

In mid-2017, Asgari returned to the United States with his wife to visit his children. He was arrested by the Federal Bureau of Investigation immediately on arrival. Prosecutors alleged that Asgari exchanged emails with students and engineers in Iran that included technical information on the project. They said that the information he provided -- previously possessed only by one U.S. company-- led to the development of a project proposal for Iran’s petrochemical industry. Prosecutors also said that Asgari had traveled to the United States on tourist visas, instead of work permits, to do research at Case Western Reserve University.

In November 2019, District Judge James Gwin dismissed the charges against Asgari. He said that the government’s evidence was insufficient. But Asgari remained in custody awaiting deportation. Ken Cuccinelli, the acting deputy secretary of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), blamed Iran for the delay. He claimed that Tehran had refused to provide Asgari with a valid passport. When Asgari finally received a passport in February 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic limited flights. DHS purchased tickets for flights to Iran for March 10, March 18, March 23, April and May 1, but each was cancelled due to the risk of COVID-19 infection.

In March 2020, Asgari raised concerns about “inhumane” conditions at Winn correctional center in Louisiana, where he was being held by Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE). He said that detainees were trying to get deported because they were so fearful of catching the COVID-19 virus in the overcrowded prison. An ICE spokesman said that only two cases had been confirmed at the facility. On April 27, Asgari tested positive for the coronavirus while in detention, according to his family and lawyers. Asgari reportedly had a severe cough and fever for days before being tested. “It makes sense to send me to the hospital as soon as possible. I don’t trust them at all,” Asgari said. “If something happens, they are not fast responders … I prefer to leave this dirty place.” 

 

On June 2, Foreign Minister Zarif said that Asgari had been released and was on plane on his way back to Iran. “Congratulations to his wife and his esteemed family,” Zarif wrote in an Instagram post. 

Masoud Soleimani

In October 2018, the United States arrested Masoud Soleimani, a stem cell researcher and visiting scholar at the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota, with a secret indictment on charges that he had violated U.S. sanctions against the transport of biological material. On Dec. 7, 2019, the United States released Soleimani and dropped all charges in exchange for the release of American graduate student, Xiyue Wang, who was detained in Iran since 2016 on espionage charges. 

The FBI accused Soleimani of trying to export vials of growth hormone to Iran in September 2016 through the help of a former student. Federal prosecutors said Soleimani ordered the proteins from U.S. companies and solicited Mahboobe Ghaedi, a student and permanent U.S. resident from Iran, to bring the samples back to Iran when she traveled to visit family.

The U.S. Justice Department charged Soleimani with two counts of conspiring and attempting to export biological materials to Iran without authorization. Soleimani’s lawyers claim he was simply trying to obtain the samples for a fraction of the price he would have paid for them in Iran. They argued that export licenses were not required since the proteins were obtained for noncommercial use. The United States revoked Soleimani’s and refused to grant him bail while he awaits trial.

Kambiz Attar-Kashani 

On Feb. 9, 2023, Kambiz Attar-Kashani, a dual U.S.-Iranian citizen, was sentenced to 30 months in prison for conspiring to export U.S. goods and technology to the Iranian government and the Central Bank of Iran through third-party companies in the UAE. On Sept. 14, 2023, the charges against him were dropped as part of a prisoner exchange with Iran. 

Between February 2019 and June 2021, Kashani used two front companies in the UAE to acquire U.S.-made electronic items and technology for end-users in Iran. Kashani and his co-conspirators falsely reported to U.S. companies that these goods would ultimately be used by UAE-based companies.  

Mehrdad Moin-Ansari 

In September 2021, Mehrdad Moin-Ansari was sentenced to five years in prison for participating in a plot to provide sensitive dual-use parts for Iran that could be used for the development of nuclear weapons, missiles, and other military items. The scheme to acquire and send these parts was in violation of the Iranian trade embargo. On Sept. 14, 2023, President Joe Biden granted Mehrdad Moin-Ansari a full pardon as part of a prisoner exchange with Iran. 

Ansari and co-conspirators attempted to evade U.S. sanctions by lying to U.S. suppliers and illegally obtaining dual-use parts which could also be used for tactical radio communications, electronic warfare, and surveillance systems.  

Reza Sarhangpour-Kafrani 

On July 30, 2021, Reza Sarhangpour-Kafrani was charged with the unlawful export laboratory equipment to Iran. A grand jury in the District of Columbia indicted Kafrani on “one count of conspiracy, two counts of violations of the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), one count of causing a failure to submit export information and six counts of money laundering.” On Sept. 14, 2023, President Joe Biden granted Reza Sarhangpour-Kafrani a full pardon as part of a prisoner exchange with Iran.  

Kafrani was the co-owner of Canada-based company Prolife Global Ltd., and he negotiated with U.S. companies for the purchase of mass spectrometry and other laboratory equipment with the intention of exporting that equipment to the UAE and Iran. Kafrani failed to inform the U.S. company that the ultimate destination for these laboratory items was Iran. 

Kaveh Lotfolah Afrasiabi 

On Jan. 19, 2021, Kaveh Lotfolah Afrasiabi was charged with failure to register with the U.S. government as a foreign agent acting in the United States. Iran’s mission to the United Nations allegedly paid Afrasiabi since 2007, and during that time he lobbied a U.S. congressman and the State Department. On Sept. 14, 2023, the charges against Afrasiabi were dropped as part of a prisoner exchange with Iran. At the time, he said he did not plan on returning to Iran. 

Afrasiabi presented himself as a “neutral and objective expert” on Iran for over a decade, according to Assistant Attorney General for National Security John C. Demers. “Afrasiabi allegedly sought to influence the American public and American policymakers for the benefit of his employer, the Iranian government, by disguising propaganda as objective policy analysis and expertise,” according to acting U.S. attorney for the Eastern District of New York Seth DuCharme. Afrasiabi was allegedly paid approximately $265,000 in checks from the Iranian U.N. mission bank accounts. 

Some of the information in this article was originally published on November 1, 2019.